Ethnicities,
Occupations and Locations of Migrants
Migrants’
Vulnerability to HIV/AIDS
Migrant Children and
Communities
Migrants in Thailand
Thailand is a major receiving country for migrants in Southeast Asia. In July 2004, 1,276,837 migrants including laborers and their family members attempted to register under the state registry of Thailand known as the Tor-Ror 38/1. Of that number, 1,161,013 officially completed their registration. Estimates by Government and NGOs, however, point to the actual number of migrants present, including those registered, as possibly exceeding two million (not including the 117,000 official refugees). Of those migrants working in Thailand, 849,552 registered for a work permit in 2004, and only 810,730 fully completed the issuing process for work permits. Many more migrant laborers do not have work permits, and new migrants are crossing the border for work every day.
Migrants in Thailand predominantly come from the neighboring countries of Myanmar (Burma), Cambodia and Lao PDR, and fill the low-paying “three D” jobs (dirty, dangerous and degrading). Limited economic opportunities in their home countries and high rates of poverty act as push factors that drive many young or able bodied men and women to cross into Thailand to make money to support their families or to build their future. Pull factors include numerous job opportunities for migrants in Thailand, primarily in sectors that Thais have abandoned, such as fishing, construction, factories, domestic work and agriculture. (See Table 1)
Thais left these demanding jobs because of the poor work conditions and the low pay rate. Even though these jobs are considered low paying to Thais, generally, migrants can receive up to five times the wage they would receive working in their home country. [The 2003 Gross National Income per capita in USD for these countries is as follows: Cambodia - $310; Lao PDR - $320; Myanmar - $220; Thailand - $2,190. Thailand's gross domestic product accounted for 91% of the combined GDP of Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Lao PDR in 2003. (ESCAP, 2003)] Moreover, migrants' tolerance level of poor working and living conditions is high considering the poverty they face at home, their limited options for gainful employment, and the fact that few are aware of, understand or are able to defend their rights.
In source communities (communities where migrants come from in their countries of origin), migration has been fueled by the perception that working abroad is a mechanism for improving a family’s financial well being through visible displays of wealth, such as new houses, televisions or motorcycles - much of which has been purchased with remittances from Thailand. Migrants who return to their home communities have also perpetuated migration by taking new recruits back with them. Reportedly, some former migrants have become agents or brokers who actively recruit and assist people to migrate to Thailand for work. These agents are part of a network that smuggles people into the country, commonly including Thai officials and police. Unfortunately, in many cases, migrants have also returned home with HIV/AIDS, and many of these source communities are now disproportionately suffering from high rates of HIV compared to other parts of their country.
Ethnicities, Occupations and Locations
of Migrants
Migrants from Cambodia; Migrants from Lao PDR; Migrants from Myanmar (Burma)
Only migrants from the three neighboring countries of Myanmar (Burma), Lao PDR and Cambodia are currently allowed to register as migrant workers in Thailand, with the pronounced majority coming from Myanmar.
Results from the Thai Government’s state registration of migrants in July 2004, which included migrant workers and dependents, showed that out of the total 1,284,920 migrants that entered the registration system, almost 72 percent (921,492) came from Myanmar, while those from Cambodia made up just over 14 percent (183,541), and those from Lao PDR constituted just under 14 percent (179,887). (See Chart 1) The nationality of migrants registering for work permits was proportionately similar. (See Tables 1 & 2)
Chart 1 -
Proportion of Migrants (Workers and Dependents) Registered
in Thailand by
Nationality (2004)
Source: Office of Foreign Workers
Administration, Department of Employment, Ministry of Labour, 2004
Migrants congregate in certain
occupations around Thailand, in part, influenced by geographic factors and
chain migration. (See Table 1) As Myanmar has the longest contiguous border
with Thailand and most migrants come from Myanmar, migrants from Myanmar can be
found working throughout most of the country. (See Table 2)
Table 1 -
Nationalities of Migrants Registered for Work Permit
by Occupation
(2004)
|
Work Category |
Myanmar |
Cambodia |
Lao PDR |
TOTAL |
Percent |
|
Agriculture |
125,723 |
17,761 |
13,506 |
156,990 |
18% |
|
Household
worker (includes domestic worker, home care, gardener…) |
86,109 |
8,104 |
32,156 |
126,369 |
15% |
|
Construction |
87,807 |
27,673 |
9,310 |
124,790 |
15% |
|
Seafood
processing and related industries |
68,834 |
5,228 |
1,055 |
75,117 |
9% |
|
Fishermen (Ocean) |
31,542 |
22,542 |
2,100 |
56,184 |
7% |
|
Rice Milling, Brick Factory, Ice Factory, Goods transport (docks and
warehouses), Mining, Fresh Water Fishing |
21,256 |
4,355 |
2,045 |
27,656 |
3% |
|
Animal
husbandry |
19,704 |
2,382 |
3,597 |
25,683 |
3% |
|
Misc.
(may include general laborer, service industry, and sex work) |
192,717 |
22,556 |
41,490 |
256,763 |
30% |
|
TOTAL |
633,692 |
110,601 |
105,259 |
849,552 |
100% |
|
|
75% |
13% |
12% |
|
|
Source: Office of Foreign Workers Administration,
Department of Employment, Ministry of Labour, June 2005
Migrants from Cambodia are
primarily all of Khmer ethnicity. Cambodian migrants speak the Khmer language,
which is generally a uniform language, however, literacy rates in Cambodia are
only around 68 percent. (UNICEF, 2001) The Khmer language has some similarities
with the Thai language, and many Cambodians are able to learn to speak Thai,
especially those who stay in Thailand a considerable time or those who lived
and worked at the Thai border prior to entering the country. Many of the
Cambodians working as fishermen come from the provinces of Prey Veng and
Kompong Cham - some of the country’s poorest provinces adjacent the Vietnam
border.
Cambodians work in small factories
and in agriculture in the eastern provinces of Thailand close to the Cambodian
border, and in construction in Bangkok and adjacent provinces. Many Cambodian
men work as fishermen, which makes them highly mobile. As a result, Cambodians
are prominent at southern ports along the eastern Gulf coast, with a considerable
presence in the southern provinces of Pattani and Songkhla. Almost 70 percent
of working-age migrants from Cambodia are male. (See Chart 2)
Chart 2 - Distribution of
Registered Migrant Workers over 15 Years of age by Sex and Nationality (2004)
Although Lao PDR has numerous
ethnic hill tribes, according to NGOs working on migration in Lao PDR and
Thailand, most of those crossing into Thailand for work are reportedly lowland
Laotians. Many lowland Laotians are able to speak Thai, attributable to Laotian
culture and language being closely related to Thailand’s, and being inundated
by Thai media. Literacy rates in Lao PDR are around 65 percent. (UNICEF, 2001)
Being able to communicate easily
in Thai and having similar facial characteristics and skin tone as Thais,
Laotians are generally inconspicuous as migrants. Geographically, migrants from
Lao PDR are likely to work in east and northeastern provinces of Thailand in
agriculture and as general laborers. As borne out by registration statistics
(See Tables 1 & 2), the greatest concentration of Laotians is in Bangkok
and the adjacent provinces, where they do general labor including working in
factories, with a considerable number of women doing domestic work. Laotian
migrants have a small presence in eastern coastal areas where some work in the
seafood industry. Out of those registered as a Lao PDR national, women
constitute about 55 percent of those of working age. (See Chart 2)
Table 2 - Migrants Registered for
Work Permits in Thailand
by Region and Nationality (2004)
|
Region |
Myanmar |
Lao PDR |
Cambodia |
Total |
Percent |
|
Bangkok |
105,779 |
40,182 |
17,709 |
163,670 |
19% |
|
Central |
157,234 |
24,877 |
23,883 |
205,994 |
24% |
|
East |
35,159 |
15,278 |
54,283 |
104,720 |
12% |
|
West |
46,685 |
3,850 |
2,105 |
52,640 |
6% |
|
North |
130,434 |
3,121 |
947 |
134,502 |
16% |
Northeast
|
2,832 |
11,635 |
1,465 |
15,932 |
2% |
|
South |
155,569 |
6,316 |
10,209 |
172,094 |
20% |
|
TOTAL |
633,692 |
105,259 |
110,601 |
849,552 |
99%* |
*(due to rounding)
Source: Office of Foreign Workers Administration, Department of Employment,
Ministry of Labour, June 2005
Migrants from Myanmar (Burma)
Over 900,000 of the migrants
registered under Thailand's state registry, including dependents and family
members, come from Myanmar, and there are many more present who are undocumented.
Migrants coming from Myanmar encompass the variety of cultures and languages
present in Myanmar’s multi-ethnic landscape. Although Burmese has been imposed
on the country as a lingua franca, many ethnic nationalities still
prefer to speak their indigenous language. Purportedly, there is a literacy
rate of 85 percent in Myanmar (UNICEF, 2001); however, it seems that migrants
who come from poorer areas generally have low education levels, as indicated by
a 35% gross-secondary school enrolment rate for both males and females. (ESCAP,
2003)
Myanmar’s military government has
imposed oppressive conditions that affect all civilians, blurring the lines
between political and economic migration. Accordingly, no one group solely
represents the majority of migrants leaving the country. Whole families are
more likely to migrate from Myanmar than the other countries due to this
pressure, with many migrants congregating in communities at provinces bordering
Myanmar. (See Table 3) Some groups being targeted by the military have been
granted official refugee status in Thailand, but most have not, forcing those
who may have crossed the border for refuge into the labor stream, and
compromising their security by leaving them vulnerable to potential arrest and
deportation.
Shan (also known as Tai Yai),
Lahu, Lisu, Karen, Burmese, Kachin and Ahkka ethnic groups from Myanmar are
mainly found in the northern provinces in Thailand, most prominently in Chiang
Mai. The variety of ethnicities in this province is as varied as the work that
they do: agriculture and animal husbandry, construction, daily labor, factories
of all sizes ranging from mass production to handicrafts, domestic work, small
shops and restaurants, selling flowers, as well as being prominent in sex work.
While the other groups, especially hill tribe groups, may have trouble with
Thai language, the Shan (or Tai Yai) people can quickly integrate, as their
language and facial features are similar to Northern Thais. Their ability to
integrate, however, does not improve their circumstances or guarantee their
rights. (Myanmar’s military government is heavily targeting the Shan, yet they
receive no formal refugee status. Assimilation is a survival strategy for Shan
people, but this has also contributed to a sense of cultural erosion.)
Along Thailand’s western border,
most specifically in Mae Sot in Tak Province where there is a concentration of
factories with special tax benefits, Karen and Burmese (also known as Burman) groups
have a strong presence working in factories (mostly in the garment industry),
agriculture, construction, and as general laborers. Being close to the border,
some crossing daily for work, or being cloistered at their place of work, few
migrants learn to speak Thai.
The Mon group start becoming
prominent along the southern half of the border with Thailand starting at
Kanchanaburi, and can be prominently found working as fishermen in most central
and southern coastal provinces, as well as being prominent in the seafood
processing industry in Mahachai in Samut Sakorn Province. Mon people are known
to be able to learn to speak Thai quickly and are reluctant to speak Burmese or
identify themselves as being of “Burmese” nationality.
There is a strong presence of
Tavoy (Dawei) in the south working in fishing, agriculture, and construction;
and in coastal areas along the northwestern corner of the Gulf of Thailand,
there are pockets of Burmese, Karen and Arakanese (Rakhine), primarily working
in the seafood industry and related jobs. Sex workers from Myanmar’s various
ethnic groups can also be found scattered throughout ports in the south, with
higher concentrations at the border.
Various groups from Myanmar are
also found working in different capacities throughout Bangkok with numerous
young women working as domestic laborers as well as in sex work. The actual
composition of ethnic groups from Myanmar working in the Bangkok metropolitan
and central provinces is unclear, although it is believed that Burmese, Karen
and Mon make up the majority of these groups.
Table 3 -
Provinces with the Highest Numbers of Migrants Registering, Receiving Work
Permits and Taking the Health Exam (2004)
|
Province |
Total # of Migrants
Entering State Registration System (includes dependents) |
Total # of Migrants
Taking Health Exam *^ |
Total # of Migrants
Receiving Work Permits |
|
National
Total |
1,276,837* |
884,634 |
810,730 |
|
Bangkok |
203,488 |
180,057 |
156,888 |
|
Tak** |
124,523 |
52,184 |
60,564 |
|
Samut
Sakhorn |
103,126 |
84,786 |
63,468 |
|
Chiang Mai** |
83,058 |
45,656 |
44,084 |
|
Ranong** |
55,769 |
32,077 |
29,630 |
|
Samut
Prakarn |
51,450 |
27,023 |
44,359 |
|
Chonburi |
49,963 |
40,680 |
32,239 |
*Actual number completed
registration was 1,161,013
**Border province with Burma
*^ Health exam also indicates those purchasing health
insurance
Source: Office of Administration Commission on Irregular Immigrant
Workers, Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare – June, 2005
Migrants’
Vulnerability to HIV/AIDS
Inconsistent
Condom Use; Sex Workers; Migrants Living with HIV/AIDS
Migrants’ vulnerability to
HIV/AIDS is increased by a complex set of factors. Foremost, there is still a
large amount of misunderstanding or lack of proper knowledge about HIV among
migrant populations. While there is limited access to condoms, there are
numerous opportunities to engage in risky behaviors. Even when migrants have a
clear understanding of HIV prevention, condom use is still inconsistent,
especially among spouses and sweethearts, which sometimes includes indirect sex
workers.
Structural barriers, such as
language differences, the location of services, documentation, and concerns of
arrest or harassment, hamper migrants’ ability to access proper reproductive
and general health services, including condoms. As a result, untreated STIs
contribute to migrants’ HIV/AIDS vulnerability, and unplanned pregnancies
result in unsafe abortions and other reproductive health problems.
Inconsistent
Condom Use
A growing number of migrants are
becoming more aware of HIV/AIDS and proper prevention methods. Misconceptions
are still common however, as is inconsistent condom use.
Limited access to condoms greatly
contributes to inconsistent or low rates of condom use among migrants. When migrants
are confined to their work areas or in remote communities, it makes it
difficult to access condoms unless they are provided by the employer or a
health office, which is rare. Currently, Public Health offices do not count
migrants when procuring or distributing condoms, with the exception of sex
workers. Thus, except for the efforts of NGOs in localized areas, migrants
generally have low access to condoms.
Although there are still some
innocuous misconceptions, such as fears that HIV can be transmitted from a
toilet or through mosquitoes, other misconceptions negatively influence condom
use. Occupations filled by migrants that have the highest risk behaviors
include fishermen and sex workers. After being on a boat for long periods
without sexual release, a practice enforced by superstition, it is common for
fishermen to band together, get drunk and visit sex workers during shore leave.
Although drunkenness influences inconsistent or improper use of condoms,
negative attitudes towards condoms, which are reinforced by uninformed beliefs
about HIV/AIDS, play a greater role in inconsistent or low rates of condom use
among migrant men. Negative attitudes and misinformation about HIV/AIDS are
common among all migrants, however, they seem especially prominent among
fishermen, including feelings that condoms are uncomfortable and unnatural, or
that the need for a condom can be determined on the basis of empirical factors
that indicate a sex worker’s HIV status, such as the temperature or color of
her skin.
Some migrant fishermen, especially
from Myanmar, have enhanced their penises by injecting hair oil or inserting
glass beads under the foreskin, something that is done on boats as a bonding
ritual, and under the misconception that it gives women pleasure. Unfortunately,
these practices may considerably increase the risk of HIV transmission among
fishermen and their partners, as penile
implants make condoms fit improperly or break, cause abrasions in the vaginal
walls of their partners, and may lead to infections in the penis.
Table 4 - Sample Rates of HIV
among Fishermen* (2002-04)
(Migrants
not separated from Thais)
|
Province |
Primary Nationality
of Migrants Present |
2002 |
2003 |
2004 |
|
Chumpon |